Beginning in 2013, Edward Snowden’s leaks caused the U.S. government to significantly reduce the scope, and increase the transparency, of its foreign intelligence surveillance, while the President urged caution and restraint in response to the extraordinary rise of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL). At the same time, U.S. communications providers sought additional reforms and reduced their cooperation with surveillance directives in important cases. Finally, anti-surveillance politicians, on the right and left of the U.S. political spectrum, prospered as part of a burgeoning populist movement.
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